Early Medieval India

  •  The Pala Empire was founded by Gopala in 750 AD when he was elected king by notable men of the realm during the period of anarchy or Matsya Nyaya. He founded Odantapuri   University.
  •  He was succeeded by Dharmapala (great ruler of this dynasty) in 780 AD. He defeated Pratihara Indraraja and conquered Kanauj. He then placed his protege Chakrayudha to the throne  of Kanauj. He was defeated by Nagabhatt II of the Pratihara dynasty, who drove away Chakrayudh. He was also defeated by the Rashtrakuta king Dhruv.
  •  Dharmapala founded the Somapur and Vikramshila University and gave 200 villages as grant to revive the Nalanda University.
  •  Devapala, who succeeded Dharmapala in 810 AD, extended his control over Pragajyotishpur (Assam) and pats of Orissa and Nepal. He claimed victory over the Hunas. During his rule,   a king of Java and Sumatra made a request for a college at Nalanda for the benefit of foreign students.
  •  After Devapala, the Pala power declined and the Pratiharas came to power.
  •  The Palas were patrons of Buddhism.
  •  They are also called Gurjara Pratiharas.
  •  They established their sway over Punjab, Marwar and Broach. The dynasty was founded by Nagabhat I.  According to the Gwalior inscription of Mihir Bhoja, he checked the invasion of Arabs. He was defeated by the Rashtrakuta king Dhruv.
  •  The tripartite struggle for control of Kanauj began during the reign of Nagabhat’s successsor Vatsaraj. Vatsaraj defeated Dharmapala but was defeated by Rashtrakuta king Dhruv.
  •  Naghabhatt II defeated Dharmapala and expelled his protege Chakrayudh from Kanauj. He was defeated by Rashtrakuta king Govind III.
  •  The Pratiharas recovered under Bhoja I or Mihir Bhoja, who was enthroned in Mahodaya (Kannauj) in 836 AD.
  •  Mihir Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of Adivaraha. The Kalchuris, the Chandelas and the Arabs of Sind acknowledged his supremacy.
  •  Mahendrapala extended his power over Magadh and Bengal. His court was adorned by Rajashekhar, who wrote Kapurmanjari, Kavya Mimansa, Bal Ramayan, Bal Bharat, Vidhsaal, Bhrinjika, Prapanch Pandav, Bhuvankosh, Harvilas etc.
  •  Mahipala I was defeated by Rashtrakuta king Indra III. With the help of the Chandelas, he regained Kanauj, but the disintegration of the Pratihara power started.
  •  Mahendrapala II tried to revive the power of Pratiharas but the rise of the Chandelas dealt a blow to his aspirations.
  •  During Mahmud Ghazni’s raid on Kanauj, Rajyapala fled the battle field. Vidhyadhar Chandela murdered him.
  •  Yashpala was the last ruler of this dynasty. By 1090 the Garhwalas conquered Kanauj.
  •  The Rashtrakuta dynasty was founded by Dantidurga.
  •  They claimed their descent from Satyaki, a Yadav chief of north who was a close associate of Krishna of Mahabharata fame.
  •  They had their capital at Mankir or Manyakhet (present Malkhed near Shalapur, Maharashtra).
  •  They fought with the Pratiharas for the control of Gujarat and Malwa.
  •  Al-Masudi came in India during the reign of Indra III and has called the prince of Manyakhet as Vallabharaja.
  •  Govind III subdued the Pandyas, Cholas, Pallavas and Keralas and Gangas, and captured the king of Sri Lanka.
  •  Dhruva defeated Dharmpala and Nagbhatt II.
  •  Amonghavarsha I, Krishna II and Indra III were the patrons of the Jaina faith.
  •  Amoghvarsha was an author of repute and wrote the first Kannada book of poetics Kaviraj Marg and Prasnottar Malika. He was a Jain. He shifted his capital to Manyakhet.
  •  Indra II defeated the Gurjara Pratihara king Mahipala.
  •  Ellora and Elephanta cave temples were built during the reign of the Rashtrakutas.
  •  Krishna III defeated the Chola king Parantaka I in the battle of Takkolam.
  •  In 850 AD, Vijayalaya captured Tanjore from the Pallavas. He was a feudatory of the Pallavas. He took the titles of Tanjai Konda and Parkesri and built his capital in Tanjore.
  •  During Aditya I’s reign, the Cholas freed themselves from the control of Pallavas. He defeated the Pallava king Aparajita and secur ed control over t he whole Tondaimandalam. He   also defeated the Gangas and the Pandyas.
  •  Parantaka I was also called Madurai Konda. In the battle of Vellore he defeated the Singhals and captured Madurai. During his reign, the rivalry with Sri Lanka was started.
  •  In the Battle of Takkolam, the combined armies of the Rashtrakutas and the Gangas defeated Parantaka I.
  •  The Uttarmerur incription of Parantaka I throws light on the local administration of the Cholas.
  •  Parantaka II deafeated Veer Pandya. He also defeated the Sri Lankan king for having helped the Pandyas.
  •  Uttamchola defeated the Rashtrakutas.
  •  Rajaraja I (985-1014) adopted the titles of Arunmozhi Varmar, Mumadi Chodadeva, Jaykonda, Martand Chola, Mumbadi Chol a, Keral anat h, Si nghalat ank, Pandkulashini etc.
  •  He defeated the Cheras, Chalukyas and Gangas. He captured Madura from the Pandyas. He captured northern Ceylon and made Polonnaruva its capital in place of Anuradhapur. He   annexed the Maldives.
  •  He built the Brihadeshwar Shiva temple in Tanjore, which is also called Rajarajeshwar temple.
  •  During his reign, the ruler of Srivijaya built a Vihara at Nagaputtanam.
  •  Rajaraja I restored Vengi to its rulers after marrying the daughter of the king of Vengi.
  •  He got the land surveyed and reorganised the revenue system.
  •  Rajendra I (1014-44) succeeded Rajaraja I. He completed the victory over Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and took its king Mahindra to the Chola kingdom. He defeated the Pandyas and Keralas   and formed a new kingdom with its capital at Madurai. His son Rajadhiraja was appointed the viceroy here.
  •  Rajendra I led an expedition to the north and defeated the Pala ruler Mahipala I. He assumed the title of Gangaikonda and established a new capital named Gangaikondacholapuram.   He built a Shiva temple here and excavated a tank called Chodagang. He also defeated the Shailendra or Srivijaya king Vijayatungavarman.
  •  During his reign, his son Rajadhiraja suppressed a rebellion of the Pandyas and Cheras.
  •  Rajendra I assumed the title of Pandit Chola, Mudikonda Chola, Nigarlli Chola and Gangaikondachola.
  •  Rajadhiraja I (1044-54) defeated the Pandyas, the Keralas, and Sri Lanka. He sacked Kalyani and planted a jayastambha at Yadgir. He had his Virabhishekha and assumed the title of   Vijay Rajendra. He died in the battlefield while fighting in the battle of Koppam against Someshwar I, the western Chalukyan king.
  •  Rajendra II defeated Someshwar. He was crowned in the battlefield. Someshwar drowned himself to death. He planted a jayastambha in Kolhapur.
  •  Veer Rajendra defeated Someshwar II and established a Vedic college of learning.
  •  Adhirajendra had to face many rebellions and he died while suppressing one of them. Thus the line founded by Vijayalaya ended with Adhirajendra.
  •  The next king belonged to the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. He was Kollutunga I. He united the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and t he Chol as, hence t he subsequent history is known as   Chola-Chalukyan history.
  •  Kollutunga I (1070-1120) discarded wars and worked for peace. He was called Sangam Tavritta or abolisher of tolls. He liberated Sri Lanka. In 1077, he sent an embassy to China. The   noted writer Kamban adorned his court.

Administration and Society

  •  The Chola administration was based on local selfgovernment. We owe much of the concept of Panchayati Raj to the Cholas.
  •  The Chola Empire was divided into six provinces called Mandalams. The Mandalams were subsequently divided into Kottam, Valanadu, Nadu and Gram.
  •  The assembly of the Nadu (district) was called Nattar and that of the towns Nagattar.
  •  Perundaram were the higher officials while Sirutaram were the lower officials.
  •  Olainayamak or the chief secretary drafted the royal orders.
  •  The king appointed his Yuvaraj during his reign.
  •  Vari was the revenue department.
  •  The land tax was one-sixth of the produce (Kadamai).
  •  The gold coins were called Kasu.
  •  The army had three limbs — the Cavalry, Elephants and the Infantry.
  •  Kaikollas were men with strong arms. Sengundars were spear wielders. Velaikkaras were the king’s bodyguards.
  •  The Cholas had a grand Navy, which turned Bay of Bengal into a Chola lake.
  •  Nattar was the dominant peasant caste.
  •  Idangai (left-hand castes) and Valangai (right-hand castes) formed the local population.
  •  The society was geographically divided. There were five anais or regions.
  •  The Kuriji was the hill region, which had a cattle-raising populace and which believed in pre-nuptial love.
  •  The Palai was the dry land.
  •  The Mullai was the jungle or woodland.
  •  The Marudam was the plains, where the people were ploughmen who believed in pre-nuptial love.
  •  The Neydal was the coastland.
  •  The Ayar or Kovalar were shepherds.
     The Vedars were hunters.
  •  The Padaiyaccars were artisans.
  •  The Pulaiyans were fishermen.
  •  Nadu was the agricultural land.
  •  Kalam was the unit of measurement.
  •  Kadu was forest land not suitable for cultivation.
  •  The Vellalas were rich peasants.

Local Self-Government

  •  The Uttarmerur inscription of Dantivarman Pallava and Parantaka I have thrown sufficient light on the local selfgovernment of the Cholas.
  •  The assemblies were of three types.
  •  Ur was the most common assembly of villages where land was held by different castes. The assembly consisted of tax-paying residents.
  •  The Sabha or the Mahasabha was the exclusive assembly of the brahmanas, who resided in the agrahara villages given to them through brahmadeya grants.
  •  The third type of assembly, the Nagaram, was the assembly of merchants in towns.
  •  Alunganattar was the executive committee of the Ur.
  •  The members of the Sabha were Perumakkal. The Sabha was also known as Neruguri.
  •  Variyars were the executive officials of the Sabha. The executive committee was called Variyam.
  •  Samastavariyam was the annual committee of 12 members who had earlier served either in tank or in garden committee.
  •  Tottavariyam was the garden committee; Eri-Variyam was the tank committee; Pon Variyam was the gold committee; Udasian Variyam was the committee of ascetics; and Nyayattar   was the judicial committee.
  •  Vyavasthi were the resolutions of the assembly.
  •  The Sabha possessed proprietary right over communal lands. It had control over private lands. It helped in the assessment of land revenue. It reclaimed wastelands. It maintained   roads, tanks etc. Art
  •  The Cholas continued the Pallava architectural style.
  •  The Dravida style of architecture of the Cholas had certain special features. It included viman, mandap, gopuram, lion pillars, bracks and composite pillars.
  •  The Gopuram style was developed under the Cholas.
  •  Rajaraja I built the Rajarajeshwar temple at Tanjore.
  •  The system of canals in south is a contribution of the Cholas.
  •  Rajendra I built the Shiva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram.
  •  The Cholas were famous for bronze statues of Nataraja.
  • The rule of the second branch of Chalukyas of Kalyani began in 793 AD.
  •  The dynasty was founded by Pulakesin II’s brother, Kubja Vishnuvardhana, who transferred his capital from Pishtapura to the ancient city of Vengi in Andhra.
  •  Vijayaditya III was the most powerful ruler of this dynasty.
  •  The Eastern Chalukyas was weakened in the 10th century AD and they became the allies of the Cholas.
  •  The kingdom was founded by Taila II in 973 AD.
  •  Important rulers of this dynasty were Somesvara I, Somesvara II, Vikramaditya II and Vikramaditya IV.
  •  The great author and eminent jurist Vigneshwara (writer of Mi takshara) lived in the court of  Vikramaditya VI.
  •  The Yadavas are believed to be the descendants of the Yadu race to which belonged the Mahabharata hero, Krishna.
  •  The first noteworthy figure of this dynasty was Bhillama V.
  •  He made Devagiri his capital.
  •  The most energetic ruler of this dynasty was Singhana II. During the reign of Mahadeva and Ramchandra, the great Brahman minister, Hemadri, renowned for his Hindi Dharmashastra, flourished. His most important work is the Chaturvarga-Chintamani.
  •  The founder of this dynasty was Beta I.
  •  Ganapati (the most prominent ruler of this dynasty) successfully overcame the Cholas, the Kalingas and the Yadavas.
  •  Ganapati shifted his capital from Anmakonda to Orgungallu (Warangal).
  •  He was succeeded by his daughter Rudramba in 1261. She ruled sagaciously and assumed the male title of Rudradeva Maharaja.
  •  She was succeded by her grandson, Prataparudradeva.
  •  Prataparudra was ultimately defeated by the Muslim invader Malik Kafur.
  •  The founder of this dynasty was probably a Kshatriya named Sala.
  •  The Hoysalas attained a dominant position during the rule of Bittiga or Vishnuvardhana.
  •  He t r ansferr ed hi s capi tal fr om Vel apur a t o Dwarasamudra (Halebid).
  •  The last Hoysala ruler was Vira-Ballala III. His kingdom was ravaged by Malik Kafur in 1310.
  •  The Hoysalas were great temple builders, supreme examples of which are the Kesava temple at Belur (in Hassan district) dedicated to Vishnu.

                      Important Rajput Dynasties
Dynasty                        Centre of Power             Most Famous Ruler
Chauhans                     Ajmer                                Prithviraj Chauhan
Gahadavalas
or Rathores                 Kanauj                              Jayachand
Chandelas                    Mahoba                            Dhanga(Bundelkhand)
Paramaras                   Dhara (Malva)                 Bhoja
Tomar                          Delhi                                  Mahipala Tomar

  •  Vasudev was the founder of this dynasty.
  •  Ajayaraja, who founded the city Ajayameru (Ajmer), was one of the finest rulers of this dynasty.
  •  Another famous king was Vigraharaja IV (Visaladeva), who probably made extensive conquests.
  •  The famous Prithivraja III or Rai Pithora began his reign from 1177. He defeated the Chandela king, Paramadi.
  •  In his first confrontation with Muhammad Ghori in 1191 (first battle of Tarain), he defeated Ghori, but in the second battle of Tarain in 1192, Prithviraja was defeated and executed.
  •  Chandradeva was the first ruler of this dynasty. He seized the throne of Kannauj from the Rashtrakuta ruler.
  •  Another important ruler was Govindachandra, who extended the boundaries of his kingdom both by war and diplomacy.
  •  The last ruler of this dynasty was Jayachandra. The romantic story of his daughter Sanyogita eloping with the Chauhan ruler Prithviraja III is a subject of controversy.
  •  The Solankis were the rulers of Gujarat and Kathiawar.
  •  The important ruler of this dynasty was Bhima I, during whose reign Mahamud Ghazni overran Gujarat and plundered the temple of Somnath.
  •  Jayasimha Siddharaja (the greatest king of this dynasty) was a patron of learning, and the noted Jain scholar Hemachandra was at his court.
  •  Nannuka was the founder of this dynasty. He had his capital at Kharjuravahaka (modern Khaujraho).
  •  His grandson was Jeja or Yanasakti, after whom the kingdom was called Jejabhukti.
  •  The dynasty became powerful under the rule of Dhanga.
  •  He sent help to support the Hindushahi king, Jayapala of Punjab, against Subuktgin.
  •  He was a patron of learning and fine arts and built many temples at Khajuraho.
  •  The rule of this dynasty continued till the kingdom was annexed by Ala-ud-din Khalji.
  •  The dynasty was founded by Upendra or Krishnaraja.
  •  He defeated the powerful Chalukyan king, Tailapa II.
  •  Bhoja is considered the best of the Paramara rulers.
  •  He was defeated by Jayasimha II.